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§9 Speech Particles

Pine makes heavy use of speech particles. Most speech particles either function to indicate focus, emphasis or topic, or are involved in interrogative clauses. A number of particles, including all interrogative particles, are made up of two short words found before and after the argument which they modify, for example na…ke(-t), which are the basic polar interrogative particles, as in na mi na-t de-t ke? ‘this?’. Certain particles favour or are obligatorily found in clause initial position, in which case they are followed by yet another particle, įo~įe, which is required for moving parts of a clause to initial position. The most common speech particles are given below.

A number of particles are found with an a… which in some cases has an ephelcystic or euphonic -n before vowels (then an…). This is not usually found in standard registers and is regarded as a purely colloquial feature.

§9.1 Emphasis, Focus & Topicalization Particles

In some relative clauses, įo~įe~-t ḷa is found after a subject which is not relativised, or in the case of genitive relative clauses:

a…(-t) ka~ku The particles a…(-t) ka are emphatic topic markers that can be translated as ‘exactly’ or ‘precisely’, and are usually found in clause initial position, for example a įoa-t ka ‘right now’. If the word preceding ke ends in a vowel, it will usually be hyphenated by -t, but the hyphen is dropped with clitics that are themselves hyphenated. It is sometimes found with hỏ, then a hỏ-t ka, which is carries a strongly exclamatory or even abusive meaning. In negative clauses, ku is used instead of ka. Some speakers use an before vowels instead of a.

(a)…(-t) ƛa The particles (a)…(-t) ƛa are declarative contrastive topic markers. They differ from (a)…(-t) da in that they switch the topic from one thing to a different, opposite or contrastive thing. In negative clauses, ƛu is used instead of ƛa.

§9.2 Interrogative Speech Particles

Interrogative speech particles are particles found in questions, including the obligate polar interrogative interrogative speech particles na…(-t) ke(n) for positive polar interrogatives and nu…ko(-t) for negative polar interrogatives. The particles na and nu sometimes causes the appearance of a linking į- hyphenated to a vowel initial word, for example na į-ayktsit ke? ‘seriously?’ or nu į-uġut ko nuttsa? ‘aren’t you?’. Both na and nu have more emphatic forms in noa-t and nủ-t, as well as more casual forms in nan/nun, nas/nus, naġa~naġỏ/nuġa~nuġỏ, nava/nuva, navva/nuvva, nana/nuna and napi/nupi or nappi/nuppi.

nu…(-t) ko-įi~kui The particles nu…(-t) ko įi (koįi) or alternatively nu…(-t) kui are the negative version of na…(t-) ke įi and indicates that the speaker wonders about the outcome in the form of a negative question, often expecting a positive answer. Many speakers separate the latter particle as (-t) ko, the auxiliary negative verb, and then -t įi clause finally. Like its positive counterpart, nu…(-t) ko įi generally requires the dubitative instead of the indicative. Negative questions with nu…(-t) ko įi are often seen are more polite or softer and they are very common. The particle nu can be replaced by nủ-t for more emphasis. The particle įi is neutral and can be replaced by mo (more polite) or ko/kon (greater sense of speculation).

na…(-t) ḷu The particles na…(-t) ḷu are found in questions where two alternatives are presented. The first alternative is found with na…(-t) ḷu, where -t is hyphenated when the word preceding ḷu ends in a vowel (but it is dropped following hyphenated clitics), while the second alternative is introduced by iḷḷu~iḷḷot or il (sometimes also followed by (-t) ḷu), by repeating na…(-t) ḷu or simply directly attaching -t ḷu to the word preceding the second alternative, and as such represent a sort of interrogative particle version of iḷḷot…voiḷḷot~vaiḷḷůt ‘either…or’. When the second alternative is dropped, a negative question can be assumed. These particles are also used in indirect interrogative phrases where English might use ‘if’ or ‘whether’, as if ‘I don’t know if’ with the hyponomous. In negative clauses, nu replaces na. Some speakers use naḷḷu~nuḷḷu clause initially when asking an alternative question.

§9.3 Pragmatic Speech Particles

Pragmatic particles are speech particles that help structure utterances, give information about how the speaker feels about a statement,

-t ga~-t tġva The particle -t ga or -t tġva requires movement of the clause to initial position and usually functions to indicate that a statement is assumed to be understood by others to be factual or true, obvious, uncontroversial or certain – it marks a statement as being common ground between the speaker and the addressee. It can also indicate surprise and agreement that a fact is true. It is also used in negative clauses to indicate protest or that the speaker disagrees. It cannot be the last word of a statement, such that an independent pronoun may need to be inserted to avoid this.

The combination (-n) datġva or (-n) da-t tġva is used to introduced a conclusion or an explanation.

i…(-t) pỉ (įa) The particles i…(-t) pỉ indicate that the speaker deplores or strongly wishes things that aren’t would be, usually a noun, and are often followed by įa and the hyponomous potential. If there is no noun, then the particles can be found as is or as ippỉ įa (or i-t pỉ įa). If the word preceding pỉ ends in a vowel, it will usually be hyphenated by -t, but the hyphen is not present with clitics that are already hyphenated, and it is usually found clause initially. Note that i is generally pronounced long as [ɪː].

i…(-t) gi The particles i…(-t) gi are similar in meaning to i…(-t) pỉ in that they introduce a wish for something which isn’t, and they are followed by the hyponomous potential. They are commonly found as i nuḷḷu-t gi įa~i įu-t gi įa~iįįu-t gi įa ‘hopefully’, i nus gi įa, nus gi (įa), nuski ‘if only’. The particles i…(-t) gi differ from i…(-t) pỉ in that they may be perceived as less polite, more emphatic or as conveying a greater sense of despair. The dubitative complementiser įoįįa-t…(-t) gi means ‘so that, such that’. Note that i is generally pronounced long as [ɪː].

(-t) įi The particle įi, or -t įi when preceded by a vowel, indicates that the speaker is making a presumption or guessing something to be true, or has low commitment to the proposition, or in cases where the speaker does know a proposition to be true, it can be used to assert certainty to the addressee when they have themselves have a low commitment to the proposition, doubt or uncertainty about it. It can be found after ga to stress a likelihood or certainty that the utterance will turn out to be true, to indicate that both the addressee and the speaker should be certain, or to show reassurance that something is indeed true. In questions, it can indicate that the speaker is seeking reassurance that the statement is true or correct, and it follows o(t) or i(t).

(-t) vis The particle vis, or -t vis when preceded by a vowel, indicates that the speaker believes or is certain of something due to evidence or more commonly due to reasoning, and thus indicates some sort of prediction. It can also be used to indicate that the speaker challenges, urges or invites the addressee to do something. It is common for vis to appear as ys or is following a consonant.

(-t) di The particle -di, or -t di when preceded by a vowel, indicates that the speaker frames their proposition as a likely but not guaranteed truth, or that the speaker is conservative or careful in their commitment to the proposition. It is often found with the dubitative.

(-t) ḷeů The particle ḷeů, or -t ḷeů when preceded by a vowel, is a strongly emphatic marker of certainty or strong commitment to the proposition. It is often found with imperatives to show that the speaker strongly urges the addressee.

(-n) důt The particle důt, or -n důt when preceded by a vowel, indicates that the speaker wishes to distance themselves from the proposition or that they do not assume responsibility for the certainty or truthfulness of the proposition, usually because they are reporting that information and have not or cannot verify it themselves. It is most commonly found with the dubitative. It can be found with a noun in the essive and a…da įo, for example a ỉskỉtset důt da įo ‘it is said of women, on the subject of women, as for women…’. It is also found in the complementiser įoįįa-t…-n důt ‘(they say/I hear/supposedly) that (apparently)’

(-t) ƛi The particle -t ƛi indicates reported speech much like -n důt but it mostly functions as a quotative particle, indicating that the phrase in which it is found is a direct quote by the semantic subject of the phrase. Quotative hearsay can be introduced by įoįįa-t…-t ƛi ‘apparently…’

/simint-au nac-/ Ti ju- lit-ni

(-t) tġaġan The quotative particle -t tġaġan (or -t ġatġan) indicates quoted speech like -t ƛi but is found in direct quotes, for examples in naratives. It is a defective third-person animate form of the verb tġaġ- (or tġatġ-) ‘say’, which is only found in the autonomous present, and occasionally in the past (-t tġaġġi or -t tġatġvi). It can be preceded by the kinetic initial si- (-t sitġaġan~sitġatġan) when quoting an answer, but an alternative form in -n (i)tġaġan~(i)tġatġan also exists. Likewise, a third-person obviate exists in -t otġaġan~otġatġan, but should the kinetic initial be used, it loses its vowel to give -t sotġaġan~sotġatġan

/simint-at c-ac-iffa/ 0_hf-ag-an

/c-amma knajja?/ 0_hf-ag-an

/gamma t-i-jja/ 0_su-hf-ag-an

(-t) (t)ġiḷḷi The quotative particle -t tġiḷḷi indicates a quoted question indirect quotes, for examples in naratives, much like the particle -t ġaġan~ġatġan which indicates statements. Interestingly, while ġaġan is a present form, tġiḷḷi is in the past. A third-person obviate form in -t otġiḷḷi is also found. The word tġiḷḷi is very commonly pronounced as [ˈxɪɬːɪ] rather than [ˈtxɪɬːɪ], and otġilli as [ɔˈxːɪɬːɪ].

/naa piLt-n-iic-ca kicki?/ 0_hf-iLLi

/c-amma knajja?/ 0_u-hf-iLLi

miṡ The particle miṡ indicates a suggestion or a request that someone try to do something, and it is mostly found with imperatives or suggestive statements. When combined with a declarative statement and ga (ga miṡ), the statement becomes an invitation. It comes from the imperative form of the verb mitṡ- ‘try’.

hal The particle hal indicates that the action is performed as a habit or as a tradition. It is clearly derived from the verb hal- ‘to use to’. It can also be combined with ủtṇįủ (ủtṇįủhal, ủtṇįal or utṇįal) to indicate a more distant past where the action used to be performed this way.

(-n) inden, den The particle inden (or -n inden if the preceding word ends in a vowel, often simply den or -n den especially if the preceding word ends in a consonant) indicates that an action is possible or can happen. It essentially replaces the verb int-tussivu- ‘be possible’. The expression nả-n den a~nảndena~nanden (a) (įon) ‘it can be’ is often translated as ‘maybe’ and triggers the hyponomous (often dubitative), or found as a particle in a main clause.

(-t) lut The particle lut (or -t lut if the preceding word ends in a vowel) indicates that the action is necessary in some way. It is derived from the verb lukk- ‘must’, and shows a neutral deontic obligation to the statement. The form nả-t lut (or nảllůt) is also found as a particle to indicate some logical or likely statement, often with the potential.

(-t) dỏ The particle dỏ (or -t dỏ if the preceding word ends in a vowel) indicates that the speaker is encouraging or motivating the addressee to do something, or puts forward a proposition. It is commonly found after imperatives (minda-t dỏ, mindats dỏ) or with optatives, in which case dit indicates a sort of challenge or encouragement that the addressee should do something (tsġvirusu-t dỏ ‘come on, jump!, you should jump!)’. With plural inclusive imperatives, it can be translated as ‘let’s’.

(a) ni(įįu)-t da The particles a ni-t da, ni-t da, a niįįu-t da, niįįu-t da or even -n da are very commonly used at the discourse level to indicate a continuing narrative. It is very normal in Pine to continue an utterance by introducing these particles at the start of a new phrase, often after a pause – they keep the flow of information topicalised or related to an initial clause. As such, they can be said to be discourse structuring particles. They are also sometimes used when a phrase uses a non-restrictive relative clause which would normally be expanded upon in subsequent clauses, but they eliminate the need for every subsequent addition to the discourse to be framed as a non-restrictive relative clause. Typically, Pine speakers are not fond of many sequential non-relative clauses with the same referent and instead link subsequent clauses with (a) ni(įįu)-t da. In other words, clauses introduced by these particles are understood to be related or a continuation of a previous clause.

§9.4 Overview of Speech Particles

Below is an overview of the most common speech particles found in Pine and their meaning.